SCIENCE, PSYCHOLOGY Y GRAPHOLOGY (By J.
Tutusaus - BULLETIN NUMBER 3 ,
Agrupación of Grafoanalistas Advisory España)
Science, leyes y theories La palabra "scientific" invented by fue William Whewell in 1840 and the term "science" in its modern sense first appeared in the "Oxford Dictionary" in 1867.
According to common definitions, science could be defined as follows: science is the branch of knowledge concerning a coordinated and organized body of truths explained and demonstrated to a certain set of propositions or correct the narrative description of experienced events observed, classified methodically and coordinated by interrepración under general laws, and that includes reliable hypothesis for the further discovery of new activities in the domain is concerned.
Thus, science is only with statements that can be tested by empirical observation. That is, about things that can be described first, and then explained by a description logic of cause and effect. However, without a methodology for the elaboration of principles or general laws and theories, science would be such. The assumptions also must be verified experimentally.
observation and empirical experience involves a precise analysis, accurate and consistent of the events, while recognizing that in many cases, empirical knowledge rests on the subjective experience of the investigator. The empirical work is the unshakable basis on which to rest any generalization, principle or theory developed. In a sense, empirical science is the opposite of the theory. However, empirical work can reorient itself experimental and observational work. The empirical is closely related to technical, as almost all sciences, even the most abstract, have had their starting point in a technique. Therefore, it is true that research does not always precede the practical and even, sometimes, the intuitive researcher makes discoveries that later studies. Thus, any law or principle can be derived from empirical research or practical applications. However, in the first place, both empirical research and practical applications have had their origin in more or less original insights.
All experimental sciences are basically inductive. The inductive method is the most used is the most universally used, is to spend a few facts or general concepts that are tested by means of control and eriencia. Without this method of modern science would be lost.
empirical inductive method proceeds in the same manner specified in the definition of science given at the beginning:
1 phase. Data accumulation.
2 phase. Organization of data to find common patterns.
3 phase. Reasonable hypothesis in the form of principles that suggest the possible solution.
4 phase. Verification of the hypothesis.
A scientific law is an assertion of an unchanging, universal, essential and necessary that acts as a lowest common denominator to explain the greater number of experimental facts in the cause-effect relationship by making "generalizations tentative" high probability inductively through the methodological process of analysis and synthesis based on the repetitiveness of phenomena in identical circumstances.
All laws used to similar situations, and as Kant says, "everything that happens presupposes Previous something, which is the purpose in accordance with law. "That is, in equal conditions the same cause produces the same effect.
Nevertheless, the so-called" scientific laws "do not aspire to be valid general and absolute. Laws are not the final word, its constants are approximate only apply to relatively stable complexes. This is natural as well as future experiments, new data and better means of observation can Canvi empirical bases gave rise to certain laws. The scientific objective is to increase the number of laws, but accept any more logical, coherent, concise and supported by experimental facts.
The problem of science is the pursuit of "truth" rather abstract term recently used by scientists, but this can only be defined as "an accurate description of the world as it is in reality."
theories or hypotheses should form a system that relate to each other interpretations and explanations of all phenomena observed in a set of laws or principles with logical consistency, so that they can predict certain facts, derived from the new var propositions, generate research and suggestions RIR relationships that have not yet been tested or explored.
A theory should be taken in principle by some while the facts do not permit the production of a new theory that the scrolls. The axiomatic basis of the theory should be announced clearly, eliminating irrelevant aspects.
Limitations of Science. In the scientific objectivity is desirable, but not always affordable, as is often the result of a subjective function-based on their previous posts more or less speculative nature. On the other hand, we must resist the notion that whatever it is p na study has to be described math-i 'mind. In other words, what can not be measured if
have great meaning and be subject to serious research. Despite
the rigor of empirical or inductive method, we must emphasize that there is much in the Universe can not be seen through scientific methods, and also what abe is not definitive, science does not support dogmas, as its truths are, most often, transitory and incomplete and does not reach-ing the essence of things. Poincaré showed that the science part of the hypothesis "comfortable" rather than choosing, paradoxically, logically, the most true. However, certain hypotheses are the result of an approach to truth through successive approximations and continuous correction tinged with juxtapositions. Also, formal logic has limited power; cer can not established the truth of the premises used in their deductions, and can avoid subjectivism. John Stuart Mill 'stated strongly that any definition of science must be "progressive" and "provisional."
In our age of relativism, the scientist is no firm basis to know the truth, or if we want we, the surrounding reality, and ultimately, the scientific data are considered likely based on changing circumstances, in a word relative.
Modern science is facing insoluble dilemmas. Newtonian physics said that the world was completely organized and that all events occurring under rigid natural laws hence the great progress of science from Newton and others, as it was to discover the laws inherent in all phenomena. But now under the discoveries related to quantum physics, it has been demonstrated that the material moves in an unspecified manner, ie, natural laws are not always rigid cause-effect relationships are variable, hence widely accepted theory that Heisenberg submicroscopic events do not occur in an appropriate relationship of cause and effect. This new conception of natural law is contrary to generally accepted determinism fatalistic character, mainly in the field of psychology. It has also been shown that maths is not accurate and it is not possible to predict with complete certainty the statistical calculation of probabilities. For all these reasons, we reach the con-cluded that the new physics does not allow observing the world with complete objectivity.
Henri Bergson, the most notable intuitionist philosopher of modern times, explained that the reason can only provide abstract knowledge, but never enough to penetrate the reality of life, time and space. Intellectual knowledge, he says, is external on abstract and partial, while the intuitive knowledge, when such is internal, immediate, vivid and complete. Extending the concept of "intuitive knowledge" may include Husserl, who says that out of the "enlightened view" of the essence no certainty is possible. Or put another way, it is not possible any particular research without acknowledging the essence.
Another limitation of science is that every area of \u200b\u200bhuman knowledge tends to develop the research method that is most appropriate, since any truly new science comes into existence only as you invent your own methods.
We must bear in mind the above, as there is a tendency to think that the advancement of our knowledge is extreme, being that the progress made in two in the last half century should be to us an lesson in humility rather than pride, because pre-cisely in psychology have been slow and insufficient.
Psychology, its importance and usefulness seems that the term psychology was first used by the Protestant reformer Philip chton Mela in 1560. Before you use the word test, a term first introduced by Cattell in 1890, Julius had used the word Bahus characterologies in 1867. The use of psychological tests, as well as its creation is due originally to Galton about 1883. The most important test to measure the CI was not developed until 1904 by Binet-Simon. The Tests most important projects, namely, that of Hermann Rorschach was not developed until the period comprises from 1911 to 1921, although the term "projective techniques you" was not used until 1939 and introduced by Franck.
Psychology can be defined as the "science of conduct" has always covered a singular importance, so Goethe once said that "knowing the measure itself is a great strength." Alfred Adler in his book "The knowledge of man" speaks of the immense utility that could arise from the Psychological Science: "The men would live together much better if more knowledge of man, because certain forms disappear disrupters of the common life which are only now possible for not knowing, being thus exposed to pe-ger to be misled by external things and incur other misrepresentations and concealment. "Also in terms of optimism like Erich Fromm says "The Know thyself is one of the key slogans of force and human happiness."
modern times, psychology has undergone a huge expansion. For example, U.S. enn American Psychological Association comprises some 40,000 members, being that in 1890 only involved about 20 people. A-spite of this, the benefits appear may result from this science are viewed with considerable pessimism today, well as a distinguished psychologist George A. Miller has come to ask the question: why us psychologists, we can not solve the conflicts of our departments or professional associations to direct our more successful than others, suddenly proclaim that our work will solve the problems much more difficult for the decline of cities, racial conflict, international relations, public education or mental health? ". Certainly if psychologists ready-den being human behavior specialists are not able to project more light on human dilemmas hands, such as drug addiction, the state of the economy, pollution, etc. are all problems caused by people, the future of psycho-logical science and even society as a whole is bleak and uncertain. Amen
past, present or future of psychology, the most pressing issue is its scientific discussed both from outside and from the bosom of their theoretical and professional.
The scientific character of psychology.
psychology and biology, ethics and sociology, etc., Have seen the need to de-velop its own methods of investigation and that the constant term that characterizes the laws of das-called "science" is relative in respect to psychobiological dynamics. Psychology is experiencing major difficulties to establish itself as reliable science when trying to apply the same laws of physics that are rigid and analytical, while in psychology are both synoptic. General science in investigating real data, while psychology is concerned with the significance and meaning of these data. The introduction of scientific methodology has not been enough to make psychology a science homogeneous results, important as they are, are fragmented and dispersed, and as Jean Feller "is difficult to draw any that can be called, finalmen-te, the knowledge of man. "
The basic and fundamental difficulty for a systematic elaboration of the" science of behavior "is that life, the self, consciousness, emotions, etc. escape analysis, research and reduction palpable rigorous laws. In other words, man is too complex and indivisible for Abar-market as a whole and in its uniqueness and, therefore, can not be reduced to external habits, fragmentary results of test or simple physiological drives. As well said Allport, "the person is a shattered and never repeated phenomenon that at any time beyond the traditional scientific approach."
Finally, psychology is a science difficult to define and, as someone said, psychology lost its "psyche" and became a science of "mind", then missed the "mind" and became science "conscience." Finally, he lost his "conscience" and became a science of "behavior." When behaviorism, which is the prevailing theory, which is more scientific than the others, is replaced by another theory, what will become of the "behavior"? Certainly the behavior tends to be replaced, as we shall see, by human psychology, but nevertheless, it is almost impossible to find Psychology as complete a search for and find, simultaneously, the nature, the intimate mechanism, the meaning and purpose of psychic phenomena.
We would be cautious in the sense that although the concept of consideration of science, in terms of psychology is radically irreconcilably divided into two opposing factions: the experimental, with its roots in behaviorism, and the clinical field, which should Psychoanalysis, therefore no one must conclude that psychology is not science. In any case, is a "science education."
Different approaches in psychology. is undeniable that progress sweeping of psychology Sigmund Freud is because psychoanalytic theories and their more or less dissidents cas. Your system can not always demonstrate through accepted scientific methods, or be attacked in a way that Freud considered valid, and that their "resistance" they say, can be explained psychoanalytically. Their belief in the unconscious determinants is a valid part-ogy in contemporary psychology. It must be emphasized that Freudian psychoanalysis is a "performance art" that gives meanings to expressions, slips, etc ... in short, is an art or science exegetical, as Paul Ricoeur and is based much more than it seems on intuition, without excluding any item of information, although it tends to oppose the statistical methods probably Psychoanalysis and Clinical Psychology, in its broadest sense, will remain the only method of in-depth study of the individual as well as in therapy, which does not is easy to discern in experimental psychology that is the only scientist in the classic sense of the term. Besides being an intuitive interpretive methodology, it is also introspective and can be regarded as valid because they show overlapping findings of different researchers who have used it.
must not ignore that psychoanalysis has been severely criticized and condemned for its methodology académic.a not branded, but no other approach to psychology has proved so fruitful for psychological research.
Other renowned clinical psychologists have established propositions quite opposite to the position of Freud. Rank, the father of social work in the U.S., presented the idea that the will was an important determinant of behavior. Frankl said that the patient must develop a more positive image of itself. Glasser emphasizes the moral responsibility of the subject. And finally, Rogers also dismisses Freud's pessimism and its rigid determinism.
The broad spectrum of psychology Clinic has over 200 "schools" differ from therapy, with over 10,000 specific techniques, so FH Garrison has been said that "when there are many remedies used for a disease, we can say we know very little about it" .
The "second Iuerza is behaviorism and behaviorism says truly experimental methods scientists use, which are based delicacy medially in the" animal psychology, statistics and factorial. However, weaknesses provides for easy refutaci n. Behaviorism is based on the re-strapping Pavlov conditioned. More fundamental criticism against reflexology is that its denial of freedom, the reduction of the psyche to stimulus-response scheme and exclusion which makes consciousness and introspection, it does not take into account that human behavior is not always predictable human responses involving sense, the idea of \u200b\u200bvalue, intent and meaning that can only be understood and observed subjectively and introspectively at their own conscience. In other words, psychic phenomena have final character. Consciousness is only known by another consciousness, or in other words, psychic phenomena must be apprehended subjectively. The objectified the psyche is just a physiological aspect, but not all the psyche. Man is
more than an outward behavior with principles of objective or observable physical or physiological, since you can not remove the self conscious, voluntary choice, experiencing deep and unexpressed mental activities. If the internal ideas, according to Skinner, are "fiction", the same behavioral perspective can be quite properly labeled "fiction", therefore, his theories of determinism so tight that deny the dignity of man are destroyed themselves.
We can not ignore the issue of tests developed through systematic analysis factorialist, nor fall into the easy cliché that "a test is not anything, but anything can be converted into a test. "Still, we must make some repairs to the respective factor analysis, as a significant danger is to fall into the so-called operation of SS Stevens, who said:" Do not waste time trying to agree on definitions For example, what is "intelligence." Let's say, however, intelligence is simply what tests measure. "Thus, there is the danger of vagueness. The theory of fac-torial features is a fragmentary theory has not sufficiently taken into account the various forms of in-interaction between the subject and the environmental reality, and also certain factors have an irreducible basis doubtful and difficult to prove, as well as ta work capacity or not derived from other dimensions. The traditional tests, which investigate the various components of personality, not expressed in the mutual interferences in-unit structure, hence the synthesis of anecdotal evidence that gets put to the psychologist in the inevitable risk of falling into subjectivism and incompleteness. The danger of the factorial is called reductionism, which is the assumption that all human behavior can be divided into smaller units that can be scientifically investigated in isolation. This approach makes the dubious assumption that fed-year analysis of the parties can lead us to a heightened awareness of the set, forgetting that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts and the interaction of the parties is controlled by various structures of higher unit level.
relativism is also common in modern psychology. Part of the assumption that there are no absolute standards of right and wrong and there is no absolute truth or belief. If accepted, then the thesis that there can be no absolute certainty about anything, then the best thing to do is identify the scientist as probable, the random and changing, rather than what is consistent, normative and universal.
In view of the confrontation between experimentalists, factorial or behavioral, on the one hand, and the clini-cal or psychoanalysts, other, has emerged a third way called "Humanistic Psychology", whose main champion was Abraham Maslow and its main precursors Rogers, Allport and Fromm. This school advocates accept substantially all conflicting movements and develop the unrealized potential of the individual until it reaches maturity or psychological self. This movement is opposed to ideas about the man based on the study of animal behavior and is also opposed to behaviorism to worry about the total person, except the ability to choose from, the sense of values, emotional experiences, in a word The importance of subjective experiences.
Recently, has appeared that we might call the "fourth force" arising from the an-ing mentioned "Humanistic Psychology." The fourth way uses psychedelic therapy, meditation mystical-relaxing techniques of psychodrama, singing, dancing, etc. and even "naked marathons" and seances. Naturally, in this fourth way superficiality prevails, irrationality, confusion rhetoric and elements such as mysticism, occultism and altered states of consciousness, they would not have been tolerated fifty years ago. Today is not difficult to see how this pseudoscience based on flimsy foundations enters the same university. These movements, in addition to pre-sit very fragmented, trying to "change the course of history" before they understand and treat the man.
Against the background of modern psychology that looks very super-specialized, focusing on increasingly bizarre methods, using less and less understandable jargon and giving importance to details of little practical value, the question with Gary Collins "... if is possible that much of "what is offered is not a metapsychology, ie extra-preconceptions and unsubstantiated opinions of doubtful validity.
Psychology A way to stop would be to imitate the natural sciences, sharpen methodology, concomitant unifying theories and pay more attention to understanding, insight and psychological awareness. Also profundizaciónde humanistic psychology or Structural Form seems right track to understanding the man.
Indeed, structural psychology provides an understanding of the subject as a whole, so that the modification of one of its members interrelated affect the others. That is, the study of man as a whole means not losing the sense of nature "holistic" because there is no problem that is "strictly psychological, physical or just spiritual, but when it goes wrong part of the unified person, all the individual is affected. This is the principle underlying the psychosomatic medicine. Hippocrates said that there is no life without organization, or organization without unity, however, man is more than the sum of its parts, hence the qualitative to quantitative transcends the combination of elements. The analytical methodology used in natural science destroys the indivisible qualities of consciousness and feeling.
Graphology as a science.
Many scientists have been concerned with laboratory testing on writing, so we have Saudek who filmed and made experiments on the speed and rhythm of writing and Emil Kraepelin, German psychiatrist who established scales for measuring the pressure and weight of writing both sick like normal people.
hypnosis experiences on subjects submitted to different states of mind or making them believe they were this or that character have been tried with considerable success for Ferrari, Hericourt and France Richet (1886) and by Preyer and Lambros.o. In modern times, has carried out these experiments, the Italian Marco Marchesan Psicografólogo. Graphic variations of the differ-ent moods produced have agreed with graphics syndromes assigned by classical graphology.
Crépieux-Jamin made several identification tests. The most important is that made with 11 children (kindergarten age) who did draw a fixed number of tallies s on pieces of paper the same size and color. Once numbered the leaves and loa noted names, shuffled the pieces of paper and each child admitted without hesitation their own tallies. Usually the recognition or identification of a writing is due to a picture which in principle can not indicate the specific causes or particulars in which it is based identification.
Alfred Binet intelligence researcher and author of the test that bears his name, considered scientifically rigorous reliability of the results own handwriting at the request of Crépieux-Jamin. After a series of tests was given up by the percentage of accurate tests. Other sciences to which no one dares to dispute the title such as demanding not get results.
Psychological Research Institute of Milan has done a careful experiment on 839 test subjects and 60,000 controls, which has, consequently, determine 27,000 character traits, which are conveniently grouped and identified 226 clear graphic signs developers the psychological drivers that pull a total of 800 characteristics (tendencies or attitudes). This research has achieved a psychic system which demonstrates that graphology is and will be able to make psychological knowledge of man, and not only to appropriate knowledge. Psychological others, for carrying out their tasks using the current language.
The scientific method can do nothing more than give us the data, the interpretation of what is good or bad, ethical or illegitimate is qualified by entirely different methods. Scientists do not want to discuss the problem of "values." The handwriting bir described well the person tested is that "value" and enjui-CIAR from the beginning that says: "This person is well or other mode.
The reasons why many are reluctant to see the relationship between motion graphic and personality type are harmful and emotional. Resistance occurs because of social, reli-gious and plusvalorantes that not allow that the individual "I" can be so easily tested.
Graphology, as we have seen, using principles, laws, experimental basis, measure, tested hypotheses, technical terminology and other factors inherent in any human science, and also studied phenomena of universal validity such as rhythm, expressiveness, analog symbols, the unconscious reflection of cerebral origin personal writing, which does not exclude the possibility of error in diagnosis because the handwriting is judge and jury as the doctor. The error of diagnosis by the doctor does not mean that medicine has failed. We must also remember that the same uniqueness of each human being-hand lay, sometimes a barrier to any kind of science that studies the man.
Towards a scientific and humanistic Graphology Graphology has been frequently criticized, partly because of ignorance, of lack of scientific rigor from the field of science or from the field of psychology. Usually ask complicated or rigid validation statistics laws.
Graphology, like all sciences, uses a methodology and a set of laws and principles which are p.ropios. No one can consider graphology as an autonomous science of psychology, but psychology itself as the expression, or more specifically to cr, etamente as Psychology of Scripture, as has been referred to various creators and researchers of science graphology . As we have previously shown that graphology is, as psychology, a "science education." Therefore, not just the critical-tices by unscientific psychology, since that science itself is fragmented and can hardly present a set of laws and principles of analysis and interpretation and, moreover, can the psychology of Scripture. Admittedly, however, that the best tracts of graphology does not usually present a systematic scientific principles underlying the science of graphology. It is important, in., Subsequent work, students of graphology, tend to systematize the wealth of knowledge and experience gained in the various "schools": French, German, Swiss and Italian. Counter-mind to what happens in Psychology, these different schools tend to converge and form a com-pact set of knowledge to present a single Graphology capitalized.
Graphology is much older than psychology and the use of tests, as we saw the dates to the origins of characterological terms, test, etc. Would have to go back to the Abbe Michon, around 1870, who received oral teachings of the Abbe Flandrin and knew the work of pioneering Swiss pastor and physiognomist Lavater. Graphology is always a "science education" in both psychology is in the same phase. Michon and said: "An imperfect science would not be science." Furthermore we must recognize that to-two methods or approaches to existing personality psychology has left its mark on Graphology and methods.
For more than a systematization of the scientific principles of graphology, do not forget the same principle applies to science in general is that in nature there are no rigid laws. Also in graphology should be used jointly by the rational and the intuitive knowledge, as we saw the philosopher Bergson suggested as a way to better understand the internal and external reality that is the subject of study of graphology.
Graphology and Psychology are doomed to move together because both sciences need a "scheme or functional structure of personality" to a full understanding of the individual. The handwriting is faced with an individual subject to be captured in all his person, therefore, can not be expected to apply the approach of experimental psychology. In Germany, graphology is often subordinated to psychology France characterological typology subordinates in Switzerland and the United States is often subordinate to psychoanalysis and, finally, Italy graphology generates an anthropological dimension which has to some extent, a schema theory or personality.
Graphology as psychoanalysis, has a certain interpretive category, ie, exegetical, and if it is criticized, have the consolation that it is like psychoanalysis itself or clinical psychology. Projective techniques are also criticized by psychologists who call themselves targets, and yet, these techniques are the best instrument to penetrate the individual's emotional conflictuality. Do not forget that graphology has a lot of projective test.
Modern Applied psychology is usually quite dehumanized, despite the movements of the "Humanistic Psychology", as many personality traits have lost their value to modern psychology has not been more than that: the heat to the work, the environ-ment and the ability to succeed, ie a set of features that antiquity had attributed to slaves and outcasts. (Nuttin)
Graphology is coupled with the "human psychology Nisticò" because it deals with the will, moral responsibility, conscience, the self, feelings, etc. Graphology also clarifies certain aspects of the study of personality that is the dilemma of experimental psychology, particularly as regards the perception of the total personality. With all property 'can be considered Ludwi, g Klages was first applied to a large extent, the theory of how graphology. The Psychology of Form is a branch of "humanistic psychology" and the handwriting view this psychology through his research, observed as each feature affects the expressive unity of personality, which is opposed to behaviorism in vogue.
Graphology as a method or technique is in a privileged situa-tion: the immediacy of being able to achieve with a summary of the whole person and their individuality uniquely differentiated, since the graph can be apprehended Iexpresión because it represents a movement coagulated or a fugitive gesture set that lends itself to a comprehensive study of great potential. To complete this work, we are pleased to reproduce the words of the eminent aeronautical engineer, a world expert in servomechanisms and also a psychiatrist and a great scholar handwriting, J. Ch Guille: "We must recognize that testing methodology and statistical techniques that are based in other disciplines are excellent, but have taken too much space in the psychology departments of universities to the point of sterilizing other research conducted the paths really new. "
